Origin
The Nusayri faith was founded in the Iraqi city of Kufa by Abū Shuʿayb Muhammad ibn Nusayr al-Abdi al-Bakri al-Numayri during the 9th century. Muhammad ibn Nusayr was one of the prominent figures in Basra. He was closely associated with Ali ibn Muhammad al-Hadi and Hasan ibn Ali al-Askari, both of whom were Imams of Twelver Shia Islam. Muhammad ibn Nusayr declared himself to be the Bab (gate) of Hasan ibn Ali al-Askari. Subsequently, he began disseminating his distinctive esoteric doctrines and mentoring disciples. The adherents of Muhammad ibn Nusayr came to be known as Nusayri.
Ibn Nusayr was considered a follower of Abdullah ibn Sabah, who considered that Ali ibn Abi Talib is God, and also follower of Bayan b. Sam’an (d. 119/737), who says that a divine part was reincarnated into Ali. After the death of Muhammad ibn Nusayr, he was succeeded by Muhammad ibn Jundab, who was later succeeded by Muhammad al-Jannan al-Junbulani. During the leadership of al-Junbulani, a new order known as Junbulaniyya was established. Al-Junbulani actively propagated the teachings of the order and trained disciples. While spreading his teachings, al-Junbulani met Hamdan al-Khasibi in Egypt. Following their meeting, al-Khasibi joined the Junbulaniyya order. Afterward, al-Khasibi relocated to Junbula, where he was mentored by al-Junbulani.
Upon the death of al-Junbulani, Hamdan al-Khasibi assumed leadership of the order. Al-Khasibi is regarded as the second founder of the Nusayri sect, as it was during his tenure that the sect expanded and gained prominence. After taking on the leadership role, al-Khasibi initially moved to Baghdad and later to Aleppo, where he continued to teach his doctrines. At that time, Aleppo was under the rule of Sayf al-Dawla, the founder of the Aleppo branch of the Hamdanis. Many of al-Khasibi’s disciples rose to become emirs under the Buwayhis, Hamdanis, and Fatimids, and the Hamdanis were the most significant supporters of the Nusayris.
Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali al-Jilli succeeded Al-Khasibi, who managed the center in Aleppo. Simultaneously, another center in Basra was overseen by Sayyid al-Jisri, leading to the administration of the Nusayris from two primary centers. After the death of Sayyid al-Jilli, the Aleppo center was relocated to Latakia, where Abu Said al-Maymun ibn Qasim al-Tarabani assumed leadership of the order. During this period, the mountainous region surrounding Latakia became a stronghold for the Nusayris and has since been referred to as the Nusayri Mountains.
Mumluk Era
The Nusayri presence in the Baghdad region came to an end with the Mongolian invasion in 1258. Additionally, they faced punishment under Salah ad-Din al-Ayyubi for their support of the Crusaders. Later, the Nusayris also allied with the Mongol invaders against the Mamluks, further influencing their historical trajectory. In the following periods, the areas inhabited by the Nusayris came entirely under Mamluk rule. The Mamluks, staunch supporters of the Sunni faith, were intolerant of other sects. As a result, they mandated the construction of mosques in Nusayri villages, seeking to impose Sunni practices on the Nusayris. Entry into the Nusayri sect was strictly forbidden, and the Nusayris were prohibited from consuming wine or using it in their rituals. Additionally, they faced heavy taxation, further exacerbating their hardships.
Fatwa of Ibn Taymiyya
The Mamluks’ actions were part of a broader effort to eliminate the Nusayriyya sect altogether. Under the strain of both religious and economic pressures, the Nusayris initiated a messianic uprising. However, this revolt was brutally suppressed by the Mamluks. During this period, the Nusayris also encountered a new challenge: the issuance of fatwas against them. The first fatwa targeting the Nusayris was issued in 1317 by Sheikh al-Islam Taqi al-Din ibn Taymiyyah. In this decree, Ibn Taymiyyah labeled the Nusayris as deviants who harmed the Islamic faith. He went so far as to declare that the Nusayris were not Muslims, thereby intensifying the hostility and marginalization they faced.
Ottoman Era
Following the conquests of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt by Sultan Selim I, the Nusayris came under Ottoman authority. Despite their long struggle to preserve their status as a congregation under the oppressive Mamluk rule, the transition to Ottoman rule did not alleviate their plight. The same forms of pressure persisted, severely impacting the Nusayri community. During this period, their presence in Aleppo was almost entirely eradicated.
Nuh al-Hanafi al-Dimashqi, the mufti of Syria, issued a fatwa against the Nusayris and other esoteric groups, echoing the earlier decree by Ibn Taymiyyah. Once again, the Nusayris faced heavy taxation, compounded by religious and economic pressures. Unable to endure these hardships, many Nusayris abandoned their homes and sought refuge in the Nusayri Mountains, located between Tripoli and Antioch. By the mid-19th century, however, the Ottoman policies toward the Nusayris began to show significant relaxation, marking a departure from the earlier stringent measures that had been enforced against them.
During the reign of Abdulhamit II (1876 – 1909), the Ottoman State experienced significant weakening, creating an opportunity for imperial powers to implement policies designed to divide the diverse religious, sectarian, and ethnic communities within the empire. Recognizing this threat, the Ottoman State introduced various measures aimed at preserving social unity.
One such measure involved policies to encourage the conversion of the Druze, Yazidis, and Nusayris to Sunni Islam. As part of these efforts, the jizya tax was not imposed on these groups, and mosques and schools were constructed in their villages. Additionally, members of these communities were allowed to join the military, integrating them into Ottoman societal structures.
Despite these initiatives, the Nusayris remained economically disadvantaged, with very few of them owning their own land during this period. The Nusayris typically worked on farms owned by Sunni and Christian landlords, reflecting their marginalized economic status. Although it was believed that some Nusayris had converted to the Hanafi school of Islam due to the Ottoman policies of Sunnification, landlords employing Nusayris often asserted that these conversions were insincere. According to them, the Nusayris only feigned conversion to gain land and power, which fueled ongoing tensions between the Sunni population and the Nusayris.
This tension frequently led to conflicts, including disputes during shared religious rituals. These clashes between the two groups required intervention and suppression by the Ottoman administration to maintain order. Lacking significant economic power, the Nusayris frequently staged uprisings in protest against the Ottoman policies of conscription and taxation. These rebellions reflected their frustration with the burdens imposed upon them. However, the Ottoman State responded with harsh military actions, swiftly crushing these uprisings and reinforcing their control over the Nusayri population.
French Mandate
After the First World War, the French invaded Syria and established a mandatory administration in the region. Employing a divide-and-conquer strategy, they fragmented the region into several states: the State of Aleppo, the State of Damascus, Jabal al-Druze State, the Alawite State, and the State of Greater Lebanon. During this period, the Nusayris were referred to as Arab Alawites for the first time. The Latakia region of Syria was also officially designated as an Alawite region during this administrative restructuring.
In 1922, the Alawite State was established, becoming one of the first artificial states in the Middle East. However, in 1939, this state was reincorporated into Syria as a province. For the first time in their history, the Nusayris gained official recognition during this period and were able to live without the severe restrictions that had characterized earlier eras.
The French practice of providing arms and military training to minorities marked a significant turning point for the Nusayris. They made up half of the French “Troupes spéciales du Levant,” a military corps organized into eight battalions. Through their involvement in these corps, the Nusayris received training in military skills and began to gain a deeper understanding of the military system.
In addition to military training, Nusayris had access to education in French schools, which offered a Western-style curriculum. Some Nusayris were even sent to Europe for further education. This exposure to education, particularly in military and academic institutions, fueled the idea of social mobility through learning. As a result, an educated Nusayri elite and middle class began to emerge, marking a significant shift in their social and cultural development.
Creation of Syrian State
In 1942, the Alawite State, which had been established under French mandatory rule, was incorporated into the Syrian State. However, this integration led to a division among the Nusayris, who had for the first time gained political and administrative status. On one hand, Nusayri intellectuals supported the idea of joining the Syrian State, believing it offered a path to greater political and social influence. On the other hand, tribal leaders and sheiks resisted the incorporation, unwilling to submit to any state structure.
Despite this internal disagreement, the Nusayris were incorporated into the Syrian State in 1942. Following their integration, they began to occupy various administrative positions within the Syrian government and played a significant role in the formation of the Socialist Baath Party, contributing actively to the political landscape of the newly unified state.
By 1946, Syria had gained independence from France. However, the path to independence had left Syria colonized and impoverished, with the influence of landlord tribes contributing to its economic struggles. Bureaucracy was largely controlled by a wealthy, aristocratic class that had retained its wealth since the French mandate, and this elite was supported by the affluent urban population. After enduring significant poverty, Syria found itself politically fragmented, a situation compounded by the already divided Arab World, leading to a political vacuum.
Emergence of Bath Party
In this context, the Baath Party, also known as the Arab Renaissance Party, emerged, advocating for Arab nationalism. Before the formation of the Baath Party, Said al-Husri was widely recognized as a leading figure in Arab nationalism. His secular ideology argued that the shared culture of the Arab people formed the foundation of the Arab Nation, with a history extending back to pre-Islamic times. He emphasized that religion was an integral part of this cultural heritage and sought the unification of Arabs, irrespective of their religious differences, based on their shared historical and cultural values.
Said al-Husri’s ideas greatly influenced Michel Aflaq, an Arab Christian, who further developed his nationalist ideology. Aflaq emphasized the unity of Arabs through their shared culture and history, downplaying the significance of religious differences. During the period from 1920 to Syria’s independence, nationalists across Syria and other Arab countries were actively involved in an anti-imperialist movement, striving to free their nations from foreign domination and promote Arab unity.
In the post-independence period, the Baath Party focused on addressing both the economic and social problems facing Syria. They placed particular emphasis on the colonial period, believing that the unification of the Arab world was essential for avoiding a return to the conditions of foreign domination. Recognizing these challenges, the Baath Party shaped its principles around these concerns, and its constitution was subsequently crafted based on these foundational ideas.
Although the Baath Party’s roots were established in 1943, its first congress took place in 1947, with key figures like Michel Aflaq (Christian), Salah al-Din al-Bitar (Sunni), and Zaki al-Arsuzi (Nusayri) participating. It was during this period that the Baath Party emerged as an active political force. The party was organized into a hierarchical structure, comprising cells, groups, sections, branches, regional commands, and a national congress. The structure of cells indicated that, in addition to its overt activities, the Baath Party also engaged in secretive organizational operations, reflecting its strategic approach to building political power.
Internal Turmoil and Rise of Hafiz al-Assad
Shukri al-Quwatli was elected as the first president of independent Syria. However, his presidency was abruptly ended in 1949 when he was toppled by a military coup led by Adib Shishakli. After Shishakli’s overthrow, the Baath Party gained 18 parliamentary seats in the subsequent election, and Shukri al-Quwatli was re-elected as president in 1954. During this period, Baathism expanded beyond Syria’s borders, and the United Arab Republic was formed following an agreement between Syria and Egypt to unite. However, the union did not function as envisioned.
A secret committee of military officers within the Syrian State Army, which included leaders such as Salah Jadid, Hafez al-Assad, Muhammad Umran, and Humad Ubeid, sought to introduce reforms and seize control. In 1961, conservative Sunni officers in Damascus, led by Abd al-Karim al-Nahlawi, staged a coup, resulting in Syria’s unilateral secession from the United Arab Republic. This coup marked a turning point for the Baath Party. The failure of the United Arab Republic caused significant factionalism within the Baath, which had been a strong proponent of the union. The party, which had previously advocated for pan-Arab unity, now shifted its focus to Arab nationalism within Syria’s borders.
Following the coup, a series of military coups and power struggles continued. In March 1963, Baathist military officers led another coup and seized control. Hafez al-Assad, a Nusayri, became the Commander of the Syrian Air Force, while fellow Nusayri Salah Jadid became the Chief of Staff of the Syrian Army. Muhammad Umran assumed the role of military commander. During this time, the Baath Party organized its 6th Congress in Damascus, where it shifted further toward Marxism.
This ideological shift sparked an uprising in Hama, led by the Muslim Brotherhood, who opposed the move toward Marxism. The uprising was brutally crushed by the Syrian State. In 1964, Salah Bitar was elected prime minister and led a campaign against Michel Aflaq. To ease tensions, the word “Islam” was added to the new constitution. At the 8th National Congress, Michel Aflaq resigned from his position as the party’s leader, marking another significant change in the party’s direction.
Hafiz al-Assad Seizes Authority
A new coup took place in 1966, led by Hafez al-Assad, which resulted in the exile of Michel Aflaq. Nureddin al-Atassi, a Sunni, was appointed to form a government, while Hafez al-Assad was made the defense minister and commander of the Syrian Air Force. This marked the rise of the Nusayris to power and the beginning of the Neo-Baathist period.
In the following years, after Syria’s defeat in the ongoing conflict with Israel, Hafez al-Assad claimed that the loss had eroded public trust in the government, providing him with the opportunity to stage a bloodless coup. Ahmad al-Khatib was appointed president, but Hafez al-Assad effectively took charge of the government. In 1971, Assad was elected president in a referendum.
On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad removed the word “Islam” from the constitution, signaling a further shift in the state’s ideological direction. After 1970, Assad took deliberate steps to place Nusayris in key positions within the Syrian state, particularly within the intelligence and military services. Nusayri factions began to emerge within these institutions. It is also believed that Assad included members of the secular Sunni elite in his cabinet to mitigate criticism from the Sunni community and maintain broader political support. In 1982, an uprising broke out in Hama, a stronghold of the Muslim Brotherhood, against the government. The revolt was brutally crushed, with estimates suggesting that between 25,000 and 40,000 people lost their lives during the repression. In 1984, a power struggle emerged between Hafez al-Assad and his brother, Rifaat al-Assad. Rifaat attempted a coup but failed, leading to his exile.
Bashar al-Assad & Arab Spring Movement
In 2000, after the death of Hafez al-Assad, his son Bashar al-Assad assumed the presidency. Bashar introduced a series of expected reforms, ushering in a period known as the “Damascus Spring.” However, these reforms were seen as insufficient, leading Syrian intellectuals to mobilize. They prepared a manifesto, calling for free elections and the creation of new political parties. However, these demands posed a threat to the government’s control, and as a result, the Damascus Spring ended, with the government taking a staunch anti-reform stance.
In 2011, the Arab Spring movement, which had gained momentum in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia, spread to Syria. Anti-government protests demanding democracy and freedom began in the city of Da’raa and rapidly spread to other cities. The regime’s harsh military response resulted in numerous casualties, marking the beginning of the Syrian Civil War. The conflict would claim thousands of lives and force countless others to seek refuge in other countries.
The Nusayri community, also known as the Alawites, has a long and complex history shaped by political, religious, and social pressures in the Middle East. From their initial struggles under the Mamluks and Ottomans to their rise to power under the Baath Party, the Nusayris have played a significant role in Syria’s political landscape. Their journey has been marked by periods of persecution, political maneuvering, and power struggles, especially within the context of broader Arab nationalist movements and the eventual rise of the Assad regime. Their religious belief will be discussed separately.
