The Battle of Hattin, which took place in 1187 CE(583 AH), was a pivotal conflict during the Crusades, led by the famed Muslim commander Salah ad-Deen al-Ayubi, the Muslim army faced off against the Crusader forces commanded by King Guy de Lasagna of Jerusalem. The battle occurred near the town of Hattin in present-day Israel-occupied Palestine (8 km west of Tiberias) and marked a significant turning point in the Crusades. Salah ad-Deen’s victory at Hattin resulted in the capture of Jerusalem and the collapse of Christian rule in the region. The Battle of Hattin is remembered for its strategic importance and its lasting impact on the history of the Jerusalem.
Salah ad-Deen united several Islamic lands, including Egypt, most of Greater Syria (Sham), and part of Iraq. However, Crusaders controlled some coastal Syrian cities, as well as the fortresses of Kerak and Montreal, which hindered travel between his territories. These cities were crucial for Crusaders to maintain ties with Europe. Even during his time as a governor in the Fatimid state, Salah ad-Deen raided these coastal cities, inflicting heavy losses on the Crusaders. In an attempt to divert Salah ad-Deen’s attention, the Crusaders raided the Red Sea coast, targeting travelers and pilgrims visiting Islamic holy sites(Makkah and Madinah).
Background of Crusader States
During this time, the Levant (Sham) area was controlled by the below Crusaders:
- Kingdom of Jerusalem by King Baldwin IV
- Principality of Tripoli by Count Raymond de Saint Gilles (Raymond III)
- Principality of Antioch (present-day Antakya, Turkiye) by Prince Bohemond III
- Castle of Kerak and Montreal by Reynald de Chatillon
Death of King Baldwin IV
Baldwin IV (1161–1185), also called as the Leper King, was the king of Jerusalem, from 1174 until he died in 1185. He became king at the young age of 16, but because he had leprosy, a disease that made him weak, people didn’t expect him to live long or have children. To ensure stability he appointed his sister Sibylla’s son Baldwin V (1178 – 1186) as co-king to sideline the child’s unpopular stepfather, Guy de Lusignan. When Baldwin IV died in 1185, Count Raymond III of Tripoli assumed government on behalf of the child king Baldwin V.
In August 1186, Baldwin V passed away shortly after becoming king. His death sparked a conflict among the Crusader princes over who would rule Jerusalem. Those against Raymond III’s regency kept plotting until they managed to remove him from power. Instead, they gave authority to Baldwin V’s mother, Sybille, who, as a woman, couldn’t rule directly. Sybille then passed the crown to her husband, Guy de Lusignan, as desired by Raymond III’s opponents.
Salah ad-Deen’s Strategy Amidst Crusader Conflict
As Salah ad-Deen prepared for a critical battle against the Crusaders, he carefully refrained from confronting them on multiple fronts, aiming to hinder their ability to gather their forces. In 1187, he negotiated peace with Bohemond III of Antioch, allowing him to focus on a decisive battle against the Crusaders. Taking advantage of the political turmoil in Jerusalem following Guy de Lusignan’s ascension to the throne, Salah ad-Deen gained support from Count Raymond III of Tripoli, who sought assistance against the King of Jerusalem and the Templar knights. This intervention created division among the Crusaders, leading to tensions between Guy and Raymond III, which were diffused by other princes urging unity against Salah ad-Deen’s growing threat. Salah ad-Deen’s involvement in Crusader affairs yielded several advantages, including exploiting differences among Crusader rulers, particularly between Raymond III and Reynald de Chatillon, ruler of Kerak & Montreal Castles.
The historian Ibn al-Atheer described this alliance between Salah ad-Deen and Raymond III, despite its short duration, as one of the main factors that led to the conquest of their lands and the rescue of Jerusalem from their control. Raymond III extended his agreement with Salah ad-Deen so as to include the Galilee region, which thus opened the way for Salah ad-Deen to penetrate between Jordan and Palestine.
Reynald de Chatillon Violates the Truce with Muslims
Salah ad-Deen’s partnership with Raymond III angered Reynald de Chatillon, who valued his own interests above all else. Despite having a truce with Salah ad-Deen that ensured safe passage for caravans between Egypt and Syria, Reynald broke this agreement in 1186 by ambushing a merchant caravan near Kerak. He captured the travelers, seized their belongings, and refused Salah ad-Deen’s demands to release them. When Salah ad-Deen sought King Guy de Lusignan’s help, Guy failed to pressure Reynald into complying. Salah ad-Deen’s peaceful efforts to resolve the situation only widened the rift between Reynald and King Guy, as suspicions grew about Reynald’s intentions to dominate the region.
These alliances and their subsequent dissolution marked the initial phase of the Battle of Hattin. Salah ad-Deen’s alliance with Raymond III enabled him to interfere in Crusader politics. By renewing his alliance with both Raymond III and Bohemond III, Salah ad-Deen weakened the Kingdom of Jerusalem by depriving it of support from the powerful Crusader principalities of Tripoli and Antioch. As a result, Salah ad-Deen created division among the Crusaders while also uniting the Muslim forces. He organized and strengthened Muslim armies in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Mosul, and Syria, both in morale and military readiness, in preparation for the decisive battle he aimed to win.
The Battle of Sephoria: A Turning Point in the Crusades
While stationed near the fortresses of Kerak and Crac de Montreal to protect pilgrims from Crusader attacks, Salah ad-Deen dispatched a reconnaissance force led by notable commanders: Muzaffar ad-Deen Kawkaboori of Harran, Badr ad-Deen Daldaram ibn Yarooq of Aleppo, and Sarim ad-Deen Qaymaz an-Najami of Damascus. This heavily-equipped force aimed to weaken the Crusaders and gather intelligence by striking enemy territory near Sephoria.
Executing their plan under the cover of night, the troops launched a surprise attack early in the morning. The Crusaders, caught off guard in their sleep, scrambled to defend themselves but faced a devastating assault. The battle concluded with a resounding Muslim victory. Most Crusaders were slain or captured, including the leader of the Hospitallers and many prominent knights, while the leader of the Templars barely escaped. A secondary Crusader force that rushed to assist was also captured.
The success at Sephoria inflicted significant losses on the Crusaders in both manpower and weaponry, instilling fear and showcasing the strength of Salah ad-Deen’s preparations for jihad. This victory marked the beginning of further triumphs for the Muslims, solidifying their momentum in the ongoing conflict.
Preparations Leading to the Battle of Hattin
Muslim Preparations:
Following the victory at Sephoria, Salah ad-Deen, stationed near the fortresses of Kerak and Crac de Montreal, was inspired to press forward. He quickly mobilized his army and marched to ‘Ashtara, where he gathered and inspected his troops. The Muslim forces numbered around 12,000, forming an impressive army that stretched across the horizon, as noted by historian Ibn Wasil.
Salah ad-Deen organized his forces strategically:
- Taqi ad-Deen ‘Umar (his nephew) commanded the right flank.
- Muzaffar ad-Deen Kawkaboori led the left flank.
- Salah ad-Deen himself positioned at the center, supported by the remaining troops distributed between the flanks, ready for battle.
Crusader Preparations:
The Crusaders, alarmed by the growing unity and strength of the Muslim forces, recognized the threat to their existence. To counter the imminent danger, they set aside internal disputes. Count Raymond III reconciled with King Guy by humbly pleading for unity.
King Guy called for a complete mobilization, urging every able man to join the army. The Crusaders raised the True Cross as a rallying symbol, while funds from England’s King Henry II were distributed among the troops to encourage participation.
Troop Numbers:
The Crusaders’ forces gathered near Sephoria, with estimates of their strength ranging between 20,000 and 50,000 soldiers, according to contemporary accounts.
This massive preparation from both sides set the stage for the decisive confrontation at the Battle of Hattin.
Salah ad-Deen’s Strategic Plan for Battle
As the Crusaders regrouped in Sephoria after their earlier defeat, Salah ad-Deen sought advice from his commanders on the next course of action. Opinions varied:
- Cautious Approach: Some suggested continuing the strategy of raids to weaken the Crusaders gradually before a final confrontation.
- Decisive Battle: Others advocated for penetrating Crusader territory and engaging in a major battle to settle the conflict.
Salah ad-Deen’s Choice:
Salah ad-Deen displayed his military brilliance by opting for the decisive battle strategy. He recognized several key factors:
- Diverse Army Commitment: His forces, drawn from Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo, Mosul, and other regions, were based on feudal systems. Prolonged campaigns could lead to soldiers returning to fulfill their obligations at home.
- Crusader Division: Internal conflicts among the Crusaders, following the death of King Baldwin V and the coronation of King Guy de Lusignan, weakened alliances with the principalities of Tripoli and Antioch.
- Sephoria’s Advantageous Position: The Crusaders’ camp at Sephoria provided ample resources like water and grazing land, making it an ideal defensive position.
The Plan:
To neutralize the Crusaders’ advantage at Sephoria, Salah ad-Deen devised a strategy to force them into unfavorable terrain:
- He launched daily raids on the Crusader camp, aiming to provoke a reaction.
- When these skirmishes failed to draw them out, Salah ad-Deen targeted Tiberias, a critical location.
The Goal:
By attacking Tiberias, Salah ad-Deen anticipated that the Crusaders would abandon their stronghold at Sephoria to protect the city, marching exhausted into terrain of his choosing. This calculated move was a prelude to the decisive confrontation that Salah ad-Deen sought.
Salah ad-Deen’s Tactical Mastery at Tiberias
Salah ad-Deen devised a clever strategy to draw the Crusaders into a disadvantageous position. Recognizing the jealousy of Raymond of Tripoli, he attacked Tiberias, forcing the Crusaders to leave their secure camp at Sephoria. By controlling access to Lake Tiberias and the surrounding routes, Salah ad-Deen ensured that the Crusaders would suffer from exhaustion and lack of water during their march.
Crusader Disarray
The attack on Tiberias sparked heated debate among Crusader leaders:
- Raymond of Tripoli advised staying at Sephoria, emphasizing the futility of confronting Salah ad-Deen’s overwhelming forces.
- Reynald of Kerak and Gerard of the Templars, driven by religious fervor, accused Raymond of treachery and persuaded King Guy to march.
This decision, compounded by harsh terrain, ambushes, scorching heat, and dwindling water supplies, demoralized the Crusader army. The vanguard, led by Raymond, became separated from the rearguard and King Guy’s central force, leading to disorganization and further losses.
Strategic Advantage for Salah ad-Deen
Salah ad-Deen anticipated the Crusaders’ struggles. As they approached Mount Hattin, also known as the Horns of Hattin, they were in a dire state—exhausted, thirsty, and poorly coordinated. By contrast, Salah ad-Deen’s troops were well-prepared, positioned in a flat area with ample water and grazing for their horses.
The Battle Unfolds
On the night before the battle, the Crusaders camped on rugged terrain without water, while Salah ad-Deen’s army rested in optimal conditions. Surrounded by Salah ad-Deen’s forces, the Crusaders faced overwhelming odds. Despite King Guy’s calls to advance and defend their honor, his men, parched and demoralized, refused to fight.
Salah ad-Deen’s army encircled the Crusaders, cutting off any hope of escape. As described by Ibn al-Atheer, they “surrounded them like a circle surrounding its center,” setting the stage for a decisive confrontation.
This tactical brilliance ensured that the Crusaders entered battle at a severe disadvantage, paving the way for Salah ad-Deen’s historic victory.
Events of the Battle of Hattin
On Saturday, 24 Rabee’ II 583 AH (4 July 1187 CE), the Crusaders found themselves surrounded far from water. Desperately, they rushed towards the Horns of Hattin. The Muslim army, well-prepared for a decisive clash, intercepted them. Salah ad-Deen moved through his ranks, encouraging his soldiers to fight valiantly for victory.
The Muslim Offensive
The Muslims launched a fierce attack, striking the Crusaders with unrelenting intensity. Hemmed in by the River Jordan on one side and enemy territory on the other, the Crusaders faced dire circumstances. Many, recognizing their defeat was inevitable, either surrendered or fled.
Raymond, Count of Tripoli, made a bold charge with a small group through a Muslim detachment. They were allowed to pass, possibly as part of a prior arrangement with Salah ad-Deen, who ordered his nephew, Taqi ad-Deen ‘Umar, to allow their retreat. This demoralized the remaining Crusaders, increasing their despair.
Adding to the Crusaders’ misery, Muslim volunteers set fire to the dry grass, and the wind drove smoke and heat toward them. Combined with the summer heat, thirst, and the ferocity of the Muslim attack, the Crusaders retreated to the top of the mountain. Here, they attempted to set up defenses but were overwhelmed, with only the king managing to erect a tent amidst the chaos.
Psychological Warfare by Salah ad-Deen
In the decisive Battle of Hattin, Salah ad-Deen strategically used psychological tactics to break the Crusaders’ morale. One significant method was his focus on capturing the True Cross, a sacred relic for the Crusaders, believed to contain a piece of the cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified. Salah ad-Deen understood its symbolic importance, knowing that losing it would devastate the Crusaders’ spirit. When the Muslims seized the relic, the Crusaders became certain of their defeat.
The Crusaders retreated to the top of Mount Hattin with only 150 elite knights remaining alongside King Guy. From their position, they launched desperate charges at the Muslims, briefly gaining ground before being pushed back. Salah ad-Deen’s son, al-Malik al-Afdal, celebrated each small victory, but Salah ad-Deen, demonstrating his military insight, replied, “We will not defeat them until this tent falls,” referring to the Crusader king’s tent.
After intensifying the attack, the Muslim forces finally brought down the tent. At this decisive moment, Salah ad-Deen dismounted, prostrated in gratitude to Allah, and wept with joy.
Crusader Losses at Hattin
The Battle of Hattin inflicted catastrophic losses on the Crusaders. Most of their forces were either slain or captured, marking one of their worst defeats. Notable losses included:
- Captured:
- King Guy de Lusignan
- Reynald of Kerak
- Gerard de Ridefort, Grandmaster of the Templars
- Several key nobles, including Hugh, Bishop of Jabala, Hugh of Gibelet, and Humphrey IV of Toron
- Escaped:
- Balian of Ibelin
- Reginald of Tyre
- Raymond of Tripoli, along with his vanguard
Very few others survived, with the Hospitallers and other senior Crusaders among the few who managed to flee. This overwhelming defeat marked the beginning of the end for Crusader dominance in the region.
Salah ad-Deen Offers Gratitude and Receives Captive Kings
Following his victory at the Battle of Hattin, Salah ad-Deen ordered a tent to be pitched and entered it to offer prayers of gratitude to Allah for a victory long desired by Muslim leaders of the past. He then summoned the Crusader leaders, including King Guy de Lusignan and Reynald of Kerak, treating them with outward decorum.
Salah ad-Deen offered King Guy iced water, a gesture of protection in Islamic tradition. However, when Guy passed the water to Reynald, Salah ad-Deen declared that Reynald had not been offered protection. He confronted Reynald about his treacherous actions, including attacks on Muslim caravans and his intent to march on the holy cities of Meccah and Madinah. Reynald’s defiant response led Salah ad-Deen to personally strike him down, fulfilling a vow made in response to Reynald’s earlier atrocities. Reassuring King Guy, Salah ad-Deen stated, “It is not the habit of kings to kill kings, but this man was killed because of his transgression and perfidy.”
Conclusion: The Battle of Hattin – A Turning Point in History
The Battle of Hattin in 1187 marked a decisive moment in the struggle between the Crusaders and the Muslim forces led by Salah ad-Deen. It was not just a military victory but also a strategic masterstroke that demonstrated Salah ad-Deen’s unparalleled leadership, both on the battlefield and in psychological warfare. His understanding of the Crusaders’ weaknesses, from their exhaustion and thirst to their internal divisions, allowed him to outmaneuver them both militarily and mentally.
The battle’s aftermath was devastating for the Crusaders. Key leaders, including King Guy de Lusignan and Reynald of Kerak, were captured, with Reynald meeting his fate as a result of his treacherous actions. Salah ad-Deen’s magnanimity toward some of the prisoners contrasted sharply with his ruthless treatment of others, particularly the Templars and Hospitallers, whose past actions left them no room for mercy. His decision to execute them sent a powerful message, not only to his enemies but also to the Muslim world, where he became a symbol of justice and strength.
The capture of the True Cross, the fall of key Crusader leaders, and the mass imprisonment or execution of the Crusader army dealt a near-fatal blow to the Crusader presence in the Holy Land. However, Salah ad-Deen’s victory was not just about military conquest; it was also about restoring the dignity of Islam, protecting its sacred sites, and strategically undermining the Crusader forces’ morale. His ability to unite his forces and inspire them to fight with unwavering resolve while exploiting the Crusaders’ disarray played a pivotal role in his success.
In the broader context of the Crusades, the Battle of Hattin was a turning point that set the stage for the eventual recapture of Jerusalem later that year, shaping the course of history in the region. Salah ad-Deen’s legacy endures as one of the most revered leaders in history, remembered not only for his military genius but also for his generosity, fairness, and leadership.
